Rethinking Housing Provision in the European Union: Why Comparative Evidence Matters More Than Ever

This blog post is based on an article published in the Journal of International and Comparative Social Policy by Rūta Ubarevičienė and Jolanta Aidukaitė.

Across Europe, housing has quietly shifted from a background policy concern to one of the most urgent social challenges of our time. Whether you live in a booming capital city or a shrinking post‑industrial region, the pressures are increasingly visible: rising rents, limited supply, ageing housing stock, and growing inequality in who can access adequate homes. The recent cost‑of‑living crisis has only intensified these pressures, revealing how deeply housing intersects with economic stability, demographic change, and social cohesion.

In this context, a comparative examination of housing provision across EU member states becomes especially valuable. By analysing availability, affordability, and adequacy side by side, the research highlights how differently countries experience and respond to shared pressures. This approach makes it possible to see not only where systems diverge, but also how broader structural factors – such as welfare regimes, market organisation, and long‑term policy trajectories – shape the outcomes we observe today.

The study’s comparative lens makes it possible to identify patterns that remain invisible within national debates. By placing national housing systems within a broader European context, it reveals how these patterns reflect differences in welfare regimes, market structures, and policy traditions. The EU’s diversity of welfare regimes, market structures, and policy traditions creates a unique landscape for understanding why housing challenges differ – and what these differences reveal about how different approaches shape outcomes.

Why Housing Has Become a Defining Social Issue

Housing is no longer just a matter of shelter; it is a central determinant of well‑being, economic opportunity, and social inclusion. The study highlights several forces reshaping housing demand and supply across the EU:

• Immigration and population mobility, which increase pressure on urban housing markets
• Economic stagnation and social inequality, which limit households’ ability to secure stable housing
• Ageing populations, which require more accessible and adaptable housing solutions
• Financialization of housing, as investors increasingly treat housing as an asset rather than a social good

These dynamics create uneven outcomes across member states. Some countries face acute housing shortages or affordability pressures, while others struggle with ageing or inadequate housing stock. The comparative approach of the study helps illuminate these variations and the policy choices behind them.

The Uneven Geography of Housing Supply

Housing availability differs markedly across EU member states, and these differences follow clear regional patterns. Countries in Northern and Western Europe generally demonstrate higher levels of availability, while many Southern, Central, and Eastern European countries score lower. These contrasts reflect broader welfare state traditions, levels of economic development, and long‑standing institutional trajectories that continue to shape housing systems.

Housing availability is not determined by a single factor. It emerges from the interplay of demographic pressures, labour market conditions, and historically embedded policy choices. In coordinated market economies, where welfare systems are more comprehensive and housing policies more institutionalised, availability tends to be more stable. In contrast, countries with mixed or hybrid market models often face more pronounced constraints, influenced by legacies of limited public investment, weaker rental sectors, or slower adaptation to changing housing needs.

The study shows that availability cannot be reduced to the volume of housing construction alone. It is deeply embedded in structural conditions and path‑dependent policy frameworks, which help explain why similar policy tools may produce very different outcomes across the EU.

Who Gets to Live Where?

Even when housing is available, it is not always affordable. Affordability refers to whether households can realistically access housing that meets their financial, locational, and household-specific needs. The study reveals a counter-intuitive pattern: countries with more corporatist economies and developed, interventionist housing policies – primarily in Northern and Continental Europe – form the cluster with lower affordability. In contrast, higher affordability appears in countries with more liberal or mixed economies, including the Baltic states, Poland, Slovenia, Croatia, Ireland, and Portugal.

These findings show that affordability challenges do not map neatly onto geography or levels of state involvement. Saving for a home remains difficult in Eastern and Southern Europe, yet overall affordability pressures are greatest in Nordic and Western countries. Furthermore, comparative evidence from previous studies shows that redistributive housing policies – such as rental market regulation and housing allowances – can significantly reduce deprivation among low-income households. Affordability, therefore, is not merely a market outcome but also the result of policy choices.

Beyond Four Walls

Adequacy captures whether housing meets basic standards of comfort, safety, and suitability. The results of this study show that Northern and Western European countries generally achieve higher adequacy scores, while many Southern, Central, and Eastern European countries face more pronounced quality challenges.

Adequacy follows its own distinct pattern within the EU. While generally higher in Northern and Western Europe and lower in many Southern, Central, and Eastern countries, these differences do not simply mirror those seen in availability or affordability. Instead, they reflect long‑term investment in housing quality, the condition of national housing stocks, and institutional capacity to maintain and upgrade dwellings. As with the other dimensions, the study finds no straightforward link between the level of state intervention and adequacy outcomes; rather, adequacy is shaped by path‑dependent policy choices and broader structural conditions.

Looking Ahead: Housing as a Pillar of Social Policy

The study arrives at a moment when the EU is grappling with how to address housing despite having limited direct legislative competence. While housing policy remains primarily national, the EU increasingly shapes the field through funding instruments, strategic guidance, and coordination across member states. This raises important questions about how countries can learn from one another, how EU‑level initiatives can support national efforts, and how housing policy can be better integrated with broader social, economic, and environmental goals.

The research contributes essential evidence to these debates. By comparing housing provision across the EU, it highlights both the diversity of national approaches and the shared structural challenges that require sustained, collective attention.

Conclusion: A Basis for Further Reflection

Housing provision has become a defining social issue across Europe, yet the study shows that outcomes in availability, affordability, and adequacy are shaped by long‑term structural and institutional trajectories rather than any single policy instrument. By comparing these dimensions across EU member states, the research offers a clearer view of how and why national housing systems differ, and where common pressures emerge. Rather than providing definitive answers, the study opens space for further discussion on how countries can navigate their distinct housing legacies and capacities while addressing shared challenges in a rapidly changing social and economic landscape.

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Reference

Ubarevičienė, Rūta, and Jolanta Aidukaitė. 2026. “Housing Provision: A Comparative Study of Housing Availability, Accessibility, and Adequacy in EU Member States.” Journal of International and Comparative Social Policy: 1–20. doi: 10.1017/ics.2025.10087.

About the Authors

Rūta Ubarevičienė is a senior researcher in the Department of Regional and Urban Studies, Lithuanian Centre for Social Sciences, Vilnius, Lithuania.

Jolanta Aidukaitė is chief researcher in the Department of Demographic and Family Research, Lithuanian Centre for Social Sciences, Vilnius, Lithuania.